INDIAN HISTORY

History of India . An overview : The people of India have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological changes.

During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures.

The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.

Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other.

The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers. 

On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. Enmity between Hindus and Muslims led the British to partition British India, creating East and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. India became a republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its constitution on January 26, 1950.

After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s.

Prime Minister Nehru governed India until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties.

In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar.

In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.

On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.

INDIAN VILLAGES

Viewed from a distance, an Indian village may appear deceptively simple. A cluster of mud-plastered walls shaded by a few trees, set among a stretch of green or dun-colored fields, with a few people slowly coming or going, oxcarts creaking, cattle lowing, and birds singing--all present an image of harmonious simplicity. Indian city dwellers often refer nostalgically to "simple village life" City artists portray colorfully garbed village women gracefully carrying water pots on their heads, and writers describe isolated rural settlements unsullied by the complexities of modern urban civilization. Social scientists of the past wrote of Indian villages as virtually self-sufficient communities with few ties to the outside world.

In actuality, Indian village life is far from simple. Each village is connected through a variety of crucial horizontal linkages with other villages and with urban areas both near and far. Most villages are characterized by a multiplicity of economic, caste, kinship, occupational, and even religious groups linked vertically within each settlement. Factionalism is a typical feature of village politics. In one of the first of the modern anthropological studies of Indian village life, anthropologist Oscar Lewis called this complexity "rural cosmopolitanism."
Indian village dwellings are built very close to one another in a nucleated settlement, with small lanes for passage of people and sometimes carts. Village fields surround the settlement and are generally within easy walking distance. In hilly tracts of central, eastern, and far northern India, dwellings are more spread out, reflecting the nature of the topography. In the wet states of West Bengal and Kerala, houses are more dispersed; in some parts of Kerala, they are constructed in continuous lines, with divisions between villages not obvious to visitors.
In northern and central India, neighborhood boundaries can be vague. The houses of Dalits are generally located in separate neighborhoods or on the outskirts of the nucleated settlement, but there are seldom distinct Dalit hamlets. By contrast, in the south, where socioeconomic contrasts and caste pollution observances tend to be stronger than in the north, Brahman homes may be set apart from those of non-Brahmans, and Dalit hamlets are set at a little distance from the homes of  other castes.
The number of castes resident in a single village can vary widely, from one to more than forty. Typically, a village is dominated by one or a very few castes that essentially control the village land and on whose patronage members of weaker groups must rely. In the village of about 1,100 population near Delhi studied by Lewis in the 1950s, the Jat caste (the largest cultivating caste in northwestern India) comprised 60 percent of the residents  and owned all of the village land, including the house sites. In Nimkhera, Madhya Pradesh , Hindu Thakurs and Brahmans, and Muslim Pathans own substantial land, while lower-ranking Weaver (Koli) and Barber (Khawas) caste members and others own smaller farms. In many areas of the south, Brahmans are major landowners, along with some other relatively high-ranking castes. Generally, land, prosperity, and power go together.
In some regions, landowners refrain from using plows themselves but hire tenant farmers and laborers to do this work. In other regions, landowners till the soil with the aid of laborers, usually resident in the same village. Fellow villagers typically include representatives of various service and artisan castes to supply the needs of the villagers--priests, carpenters, blacksmiths, barbers, weavers, potters, oilpressers, leatherworkers, sweepers, waterbearers, toddy-tappers, and so on. Artisanry in pottery, wood, cloth, metal, and leather, although diminishing, continues in many contemporary Indian villages as it did in centuries past. Village religious observances and weddings are occasions for members of various castes to provide customary ritual goods and services in order for the events to proceed according to proper tradition.
Aside from caste-associated occupations , villages often include people who practice nontraditional occupations. For example, Brahmans or Thakurs may be shopkeepers, teachers, truckers, or clerks, in addition to their caste-associated occupations of priest and farmer. In villages near urban areas, an increasing number of people commute to the cities to take up jobs, and many migrate. Some migrants leave their families in the village and go to the cities to work for months at a time. Many people from Kerala, as well as other regions, have temporarily migrated to the Persian Gulf states for employment and send remittances back to their village families, to which they will eventually return.
At slack seasons, village life in India can appear to be sleepy, but usually villages are humming with activity. The work ethic is strong, with little time out for relaxation, except for numerous divinely sanctioned festivals and rite-of-passage celebrations. Residents are quick to judge each other, and improper work or social habits receive strong criticism. Indian Villagers feel a sense of village pride and honor, and the reputation of a village depends upon the behavior of all of its residents.1995 data.

INDIAN CULTURE

"Unity in diversity". It is not just another phrase or quotation. But, these words are highly prudent to a country like India that is incredibly rich in culture and heritage. Few quotations or statements cannot describe the pedestal that India holds in the world map because of its colorful and unique culture.

From the times of mauryas, Cholas, Mughals till to the period of British empire, India has always been famous for its traditions and hospitality. The warmth in the relations and euphoria in celebrations make the country stands out distinctively in the clutter. The country's liveliness and generosity attract a number of tourists. The cuisines, festivals, music, literature, and theatre..everything is 'special' in this 'land of gods'. 

Traditional yet Contemporary
The Indian culture has never been rigid and that's why it's surviving with pride in the modern era. It timely imbibes the qualities of various other cultures and comes out as a contemporary and acceptable tradition. That is what unique about the Indian culture..it moves on with the time. There are certain things about India that are famous worldwide, like: 

Way of Greeting
"Namaste", for an Indian it's a way common way of greeting outsiders and elders. Both palms placed together and raised below the face not only show the respect for others but it also makes you feel the affection in the greeting. It is for sure that no 'hello' or 'hi' can create that magic. 

Flower Garlands
Indian people are also famous for welcoming with flower garlands. In the Indian marriages the exchange of garlands between bride and groom is a ritual in itself. People also offer flower garlands to gods and goddesses during their prayers. 

Indian Marriages
Time has changed but the lavishness has always been an integral and indispensable part of Indian marriages. In India, marriage is still taken as an institution where not two people but two families get united. So, it always calls for boisterous celebrations full of music and dance. Within India, every caste and community has its own way of performing the rituals of marriage. In Hindu marriages, while Punjabis perform the 'Roka' ceremony in weddings, Sindhis perform the 'Berana'. But most common of all is the ritual of Hast Milap ceremony popularly called Paanigrahan Sanskar.

Muslims also have their own special way of celebrating the marriage ceremony, popularly called Nikaah. During the auspicious occasion, the groom's family gives mehar (nuptial gift) to the bride. Parsis plant a young mango tree in a pot during the marriage ceremony. This ceremony is famous as 'Madhavsaro' ceremony. Every state has its own special way of celebrating the marriage ceremony. 

Indian Dresses
Beauty of Indian women lies in the clothes she wears. Very traditional and ethnic yet contemporary Indian Saris are famous worldwide. It is worn with a blouse that covers the upper part of the body. In rural parts a version of sari, called ghagara -choli is very much popular. Choli is like a short blouse that covers the upper part of the body and ghagara is like a long skirt. In order to have a graceful and complete look, women folk carry a duppatta, which is a soft and delicate material of reasonable length thrown over the shoulder.

Though with slight variations, Salwar kameez is a dress that is famous in every part of India. This attire contains two pieces-kameez, which is a like a long top covering upper part of the body and salwar is like trousers. Like ghagara choli, salwar kameez is also complemented by dupatta. 

For the men, there is no dearth of variety. From dhoti kurta to shirt pants, an Indian man prefers everything that fits well and looks good. But, traditionally you can see north Indians wearing kurta pajama, dhoti kurta or sherwani on formal celebrations whereas south Indian men prefer lungi with shirt. 


Indian Jewelry
Unique designs, artistic looks and creativity are always a part of Indian jewelry. Made up of gold and silver, the jewelry actually represents the culture and tradition of India. In rural India, a resinous incrustation called lac is used for the personal ornamentation. Specialty of Gujarath and Rajasthan, the lac bangles and bracelets are worn and liked by the women of all states. 

Without accessories, a car and a woman are always incomplete. From earrings, nose-rings, armlets, necklaces to anklets and bracelets, Indian jewelry give a woman everything that she needs to enhance her beauty. 

Mehndi
Mehndi or henna is a kind of paste that is designed on the palms on the women on special occasions like engagement, marriage or festive celebrations. The paste is applied for few hours or overnight and washed when it gets dried completely. This gives reddish-brown color to the palms. In Indian marriages, especially in the north, a special night is celebrated before the day of marriage in which mehndi is designed on the palms of bridegroom and it is followed by some colorful dance and music. In certain parts of India, mehndi is a special kind of ancient folk art. 

India-Religiously Yours!
Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Christian, Buddhist, Jain or Zoroastrian; one can find people of all Religions here in India. India is a secular state and every citizen enjoys an equal right of choosing and following a particular religion. More than three fourth of Indian population belongs to Hindu religion and you can find Hindu pilgrimages in every part of the country.

In northern part of India, you can visit various sacred religious places like Vaishno Devi, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Haridwar and Varanasi and in the southern part of the country you can take the blessings of God at the Sabrimala, Sringeri, Dakshineshwar-belur math, and Rameshwaram. If you are in the northeast, you can go to the Kamrup temple that is located on the outskirts of Guwahti on the nilachal hills. If you are roaming somewhere around Gujarat and interested in knowing about lord Krishna, then you must visit Dwarkanath temple that is built at the site where Meera Bai gave up the world. You can also visit Somnath temple that comprises one of the twelve iyotirlingas of Lord Shiva.

The Muslims have their pilgrimages like Dargah Sharief of Ajmer at Rajastan and Dargah of Ajan Pir in Assam. In northeast, there is Poa Mecca. It is believed that here a faithful Muslim can gain one fourth of the spiritual enlightenment that could be gained at Mecca.

In Punjab, there are number of pilgrimages for Sikhs like Harimandir Sahib in Amritsar, Tarn Taaran in west of Amritsar, Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib in Anandpur, Talwandi Sabo in Bathinda and Dera Baba Nanak in west of Gurdaspur. Hemkund Sahib, which is situated at an altitude of 4329 meters, is the highest Gurudwara in the world. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, mediated here for years in the mountains and here only he left his body to get united with Almighty. 

Another pilgrimage of Sikhs is Manikaran Gurudwara that is situated in Himachel pradesh and it is famous for its Hot springs. It is believed that these springs carry uranium and other radioactive materials. Takhat Sachkhand Sri Hazur Abchalnagar Sahib in Maharastra is another sacred religious place of Sikhs. In India, you can also find a number of churches in every state. If you are in south, you can visit Medak Church and Gundala church in Andrapradesh, Santa Cruz Basilica in Kochi, Kerela. Northern India also has famous churches like St. Joseph's Church in Uttar pradesh and Church of the Sacred Heart in New Delhi. If you are enjoying the valleys of Himachel Pradesh, then you can get Jesus' blessings in Christ Church and St. Michael's Cathedral at Shimla. 

So many religions and so many pilgrimages..but still people are united. It is just because of the Indian values that bind people together. These values weave people together just like beads in a string. 

Worshipping Nature
Day in India starts with Surya Namaskar. In this people offer water to the sun and enchant mantras and prayers. Indians worship nature and that's what unique about its culture. In Hindu religion, trees and animals are worshipped like gods. People believe in God and keep fast ('vrata') on every festival. They offer morning's first fresh meal to cow and night's last meal to dog. Nowhere in the world one can find such generosity.

All the religions here start the day with morning hymns and these rich values are inculcated into the kids since childhood. Morning prayers and moral education is also a very important part of the education system in India. 

Have ever been to any other country in the world where you can find such a great variety? Here people are not judged by caste, color or creed. They are judged by their values and this is what makes India a unique place to live. 

Everything is Artistic here!
Nowhere in the world you can find such a great variety in performing and visual arts that you can find in India. >From a roadside show to a highly sophisticated drama in the theatre, you can find anything and everything here. 

Indian art can be categorized into two main categories- performing arts and visual arts. 

Performing Arts
Dance, drama, theatre or music, every art is unique in itself. In India, religions, mythology and classical literature form the basis of most of the performing arts.

Indian classical dances like Bharathnatyam, Kathakali, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi and Kuchipudi mainly follow the codes of natya shastra, mythology and classical literature and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharta. 

Another kind of performing art is theatre. Though the folk theatre prevails in each and every language and region, the professional theatre is popular only in big urban areas or metropolitan cities. Uniqueness of Indian theatre is the puppet show. For centuries, Puppet shows have been popular in creating awareness about social issues in masses and inculcating the moral values of truth and honesty in the kids.

For Indians, music is to the soul what food is to the body. Since Vedic period it's been capturing the heart and mind of every Indian. In the classical Indian music, there are basically two types of schools- the Hindustani music(North) and the Carnatic Music (South). 'Raga' arrangement of musical notes is the key in the classical music. The Indian villages also have their special kind of music that carries colors of folk tradition. Music of Indian movies is also liked by the masses. 

• Films They are another kind of performing arts for which India is quite popular in the world. The country produces more than 1000 movies every year and these movies are not only popular in the domestic market but also have a wide viewership in the Asian and European countries. Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali or Marathi, India produces movie in every language. India film stars are equally loved and liked like Hollywood actors.
  
• Visual Arts
  Beauty lies in the eyes of beholder." But, if you look at the sculptures and paintings in India, then you cannot live without saying that the beauty lies in the hands of Indian Artists. India's history in the paintings is prominently visible in the caves of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhists palm leaf manuscripts and Jain texts. Either it is free form of Ajanta paintings, leaf paintings or glass paintings; India has always been famous for this kind of visual art. The creativity and use of colors has always been graceful and unique in the Indian paintings. Keeping their culture and tradition in mind, Indian artists also imbibe the qualities of other European artists and this gives a contemporary look to the Indian paintings with a traditional touch. Well-known Indian painting schools are Rajput, Deccan, Kangra and Moghul.
  
  From the Cholas dynasty to the present era, India has been ranked on top in the sculpture, another form of visual art. Deccan temples of Kanchipuram, Madurai & Rameswaram, the Sun temple of Orissa and the Khajurao temple in the Madhya Pradesh, each sacred place is the witness of Indian artisan. The sculptures at Sanchi Stupa throw a light on the life of Buddha and various folk deities. Sculptures of Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda with architectural touch show the social life of Buddha and counterparts. Temples of Ellora and Elephanta caves are the important evident of mastery of Indian sculptures. Flora and Fauna, Deities and various mythological characters; all these form the basis of designs in this beautiful form of visual art.
  
  A very ancient and aesthetic kind of visual art in India is pottery. In this form of art lumps of clay are hand-molded to form toys and deities of worship. Terracotta and blue gaze are the two main varieties of pottery that are famous in India. Pottery also has a great religious significance. On Durga Puja and Ganesh Chathurthi the beautiful idols of Maa Durga and Lord Ganesha show the confluence of pottery, sculpture and painting.

It Calls for Celebrations
The 'Land of Gods' never needs a particular reason to celebrate. Celebration is a fundamental part of every Indian's life. From January to December, every month comes with a particular fair or festival. Makar Sakranti, Basanti Panchami, Holi, Ram Navami, Janamashtami, Diwali, Eid, Mahavir Jayanti, Buddha Purnima, Guru Purv and Christmas; the festival of every religion has a significance and it is celebrated in a boisterous way. 

Here people don't need a floor to dance. Celebrations on streets during Durga Puja, Ganesh Chathurthi, Janamashtmi and Holi show the real dancing talents of Indians.

Not only this, the country is famous everywhere for the handicrafts melas and fairs that it organizes during particular intervals. Surajkund Craft Mela that is held every year in February in Haryana attracts a large chunk of masses and foreign tourists. In such fairs and festivals, you can find the real India. Such theme melas and festivals unite the whole nation. People come to know about each other's cultures and traditions and their active participation shows how much they love to know about each other. 

It Doesn't Have Just One
Number of religions, number of states and thus number of cuisines. If north India has chole bhature, tanduri chicken, rajma chawal, kadi chawal, dhokla, daal baati churma and biryani to relish, then our south India is not behind in the race. From masala dosa, rava uttpam, rasam, sambar-lemon rice to toran, appam, meen; the south Indian cuisine has a great variety to offer.

The concept of Thali is very famous in India. A thali is served in a very traditional form and in this you can enjoy the complete variety available in a particular cuisine. In small restaurants thali is the cheapest way of getting your mouth full. If you have stepped in to a hotel, then you can enjoy the variety in the form of combo meals.

The variety in Indian peppers like black pepper, coriander seeds, and tamarind, cardamom, saffron and cumin seeds not only enhance the flavor of the food but also add nutritive value to it. The Indian food is incomplete if you don't get something sweet in the end. Have a bowl full of kheer or a little mitha paan to add sweetness and freshness to your mouth.

Despite so many diversities, people in India are united and they feel proud of their culture and tradition. On the world stage, either through international film festivals or through beauty pageants, India displays regularly its talent and culture. Many rulers came but none could bring harm to its culture rather Indians preserved the good values of their cultures too. The flexibility and movement with time make Indian Culture fashionable and acceptable too.

BHARATHANATIUM

Bharatanatyam is an ancient classical dance style, with sculptural evidence dating back over 2000 years. A highly spiritual and dedicatory dance,Bharatanatyam is rooted in the Hindu temples of Tamil Nadu, in South India. The dance moved from temples to theaters over time, but has retained its characteristic devotional component and expression of human emotions. In its present form, Bharatanatyam is approximately 200 years old.
Bharatanatyam is comprised of two main aspects - nritta, or pure technical dance, with a sophisticated base vocabulary used to build intricate combinations and rhythmic patterns; and nritya (also called abhinaya), or expressional dance, using highly stylized gestures, postures and body language to express any mood or story. Traditionally, the storytelling focuses on legends from Hindu mythology, but the techniques have now been adapted to stories of all kinds.